Abstract

Green packaging

Previous nontechnical research on green packaging can be broadly categorized into three main categories (Figure 1). The microlevel studies mainly organized the principles of green packaging by regulating materials and design, thereby enhancing standards and production to achieve sustainable benefits (Siracusa et al. 2008, Svanes et al. 2010, Zhou 2014). The macrolevel perspective showed how the design of policies and regulations, legislation, and the promotion of public awareness can contribute to the development of the industry and the market (Yu 2011, Zhang and Zhao 2012, Molina-Besch and Pålsson 2015, Chen et al. 2017, Meherishi et al. 2019, Maziriri 2020, Sun and Li 2021, Lin et al. 2022). The consumer perspective in green packaging research elucidated how socio-cultural, subjective norms, environmental awareness, and demographic elements influence consumer psychology and attitudes, and thus preferences and behaviors (Chan 2001, Chan and Lau 2002, Qing and Li 2005, Young et al. 2010, Scott and Vigar-Ellis 2014, Martinho et al. 2015, Hao et al. 2019, Núñez-Cacho et al. 2020, Cammarelle et al. 2021, Herrmann et al. 2021).

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Environmental concern and carbon concern

Environmental concern refers to the emotional response, or worry, associated with beliefs about environmental issues (Fransson and Gärling 1999, Schultz et al. 2004). It reflects the affective evaluation that a consumer assigns to environmental problems (Lee 2008). Schultz et al. (2004) identified three dimensions of environmental concern, namely, egoistic, altruistic, and biosphere concern. Research has shown a strong correlation between environmental concern and green consumption. Scholars in the environmental field have proposed that concern for the environment directly motivates environmental purchase intentions (Hedlund 2011, Hartmann and Apaolaza-Ibáñez 2012). Various moderating variables, such as environmental knowledge, green product scarcity, and collectivism, support the positive correlation between environmental concern and purchase intention (Arısal and Atalar 2016, Li et al. 2019, Marcelino and Widodo 2021). According to Roberts (1996), environmental concern is an attitude of worry that is directly related to environmentally conscious consumer behavior (ECCB). The theory of planned behavior posits that attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control have a significant direct effect on behavior, with intention serving as a mediator in this relationship (Ajzen 1991, Bamberg 2003, Kim and Han 2010, Hidalgo-Crespo et al. 2022). Studies have shown that environmental concern is a strong predictor of green purchase behavior (Kautish et al. 2019, Yue et al. 2020). According to Heo and Muralidharan (2017) and Ghali-Zinoubi (2022), there is a positive correlation between consumer concern for environmental issues and the likelihood of exhibiting ECCB. Madushanka and Ragel (2016), in a Sri Lankan context, found that high levels of environmental concern among consumers in Trincomalee District significantly influenced their attitude towards green packaging.

Previous studies have defined the concept of environmental concern. However, carbon concern is a more specific concept that falls within the realm of environmental concern but has been comparatively underexplored in research. The attention of the public towards climate change may result in the development of pro-environmental behaviors, shaping low-carbon actions and ultimately leading to a reduction in per capita carbon emissions (Wu et al. 2019, Liu et al. 2022, Shen and Wang 2023). Climate-friendly labeling in the food sector is still in its early stages. Although consumer understanding of carbon footprint labeling is limited (Rondoni and Grasso 2021), consumers still support and endorse the idea of carbon footprint-labeled products (Edenbrandt and Lagerkvist 2021, Denver et al. 2023). Based on past research in related fields, this study summarized consumers’ carbon concern as the awareness, worry, or level of interest consumers have regarding the carbon emissions associated with products or services they purchase and their impact on the environment. However, most previous research on carbon concerns has primarily been rooted in environmental concerns, lacking distinction between the two concerns at different breadths in terms of the mechanisms that influence consumer behavior.

Human health concern

When exploring green purchasing mechanisms, the internalization of economic externalities of green products due to health considerations is another purchasing motive. Compared to conventional products, the friendliness of green products to human health is one of the main considerations, so consumers’ health concerns may also be a factor influencing green purchasing behavior. Previous research has shown that consumers’ high level of health concern has a significant impact on their green purchasing behavior (Irianto and Heru 2015, Qader and Zainuddin 2010, Yilmaz and Ilter 2017, Pham et al. 2019, Zidehsaraei et al. 2022). Lindh et al. 2016 (2016) found that consumers in Sweden are more likely to have green purchase intentions due to health, environmental, and ethical concerns. Similarly, Abdulsahib et al. (2019) identified health concerns as the primary driver for consumers choosing green products. Grewal et al. (2017) found that consumers are significantly influenced by health concerns when choosing to consume green products, as they are perceived to be free from harmful substances and chemicals. Previous research by Dewulf et al. (2015) indicated that health concerns are the most significant factor driving the consumption of green products. However, there has been limited research on the purchase behavior of consumers’ related to green packaging in terms of undesirable environmental consequences and health concerns.

Conceptual framework

Previous research has encompassed a wide range of studies focusing on different aspects of green packaging. These include material and technological innovations, market industry supply chain construction, government management system development, and consumer behavior and psychology related to green packaging, as well as the effects of environmental and human health concerns on green packaging. However, several important points have been overlooked in current research.

First, previous research has often examined green packaging as a unified concept, without distinguishing between its distinct attributes: for example, renewable, low carbon footprint, and human health attributes. This research gap raises an important question about potential disparities in consumer perceptions and the relative importance assigned to these specific green packaging attributes. Observed phenomena suggest a potential behavioral psychological mechanism where consumers show a willingness to select green packaging materials, whereas their willingness to make environmental sacrifices varies. For instance, consumers prefer paper packaging over plastic green packaging or recycled paper packaging materials due to their inherent distrust of the safety of recycled products.

Second, previous research has not comprehensively investigated the various effects of environmental and carbon concerns on the quality of green packaging (Wu et al. 2019, Alamri et al. 2021, Liu et al. 2022, Shen and Wang 2023). High levels of environmental concern do not necessarily equate to high levels of carbon concern. Both concepts have different priorities. Environmental concerns are more related to motivating consumers to choose recycled materials, whereas carbon concerns are probably more engaged with lowering usage of products derived from petroleum, such as plastic. It is important to consider how much the varied emphases will affect consumers’ utilities on distinguished green packaging attributes.

Third, customers may place different levels of importance on the environmental performance of different packaging layers. However, past literature has not explored from this perspective. In terms of the importance attributed to various layers of packaging, consumers may consider packaging that occupies a larger volume to be more important while disregarding smaller packaging elements. For instance, consumers may value outer packaging more highly than inner packaging due to its higher quantity of materials. Also, it is reasonable to assume that consumers tend to prioritize materials that come into direct contact with food. To address these research gaps, a thorough examination of the relationship between these traits and their relative value to consumers is required. The research conceptual framework is outlined in Figure 2.

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Data collection

As the world’s second-largest economy, China boasts the second-largest consumer market and the greatest trade in goods. Therefore, it is important for academics to conduct an in-depth study on the green drivers of China’s consumer market. Socio-demographic factors have been found to influence environmental consumption. Consumers with higher levels of education generally exhibit greater environmental concern and a stronger tendency to purchase eco-friendly products globally (Arısal and Atalar 2016, Herrmann et al. 2022). Meanwhile, younger consumers, in particular, are more inclined towards green consumption (Arısal and Atalar 2016, Núñez Cacho et al. 2020). This trend is also apparent among young Chinese consumers, the majority of whom have a positive attitude towards green and environmentally friendly consumption (Qing and Li 2005). According to Accenture, young Chinese consumers’ knowledge of the environment is continuing to rise, and leading an environmentally conscious lifestyle is an increasingly common trend among them (Accenture, 2022 China Consumer Insights Report). This trend is reflected in their daily consumption preferences, such as purchasing vintage clothes, using reusable cups for coffee, and choosing environmentally friendly packaging products. Investigating the preferences of young Chinese customers for different green packaging may provide solutions for developing countries where environmental consciousness is increasing. Although many Chinese customers are ecologically sensitive, and some are eager to purchase green products and generally have a positive attitude toward green packaging, there is still a lack of awareness regarding green packaging (Hao et al. 2019). Therefore, this study focused on young consumers in China as the target population, given that they represent a key demographic engaged in green consumption practices in the country. This selection enhances the practical significance of the research findings and provides valuable insights for future green packaging market strategies in developing countries facing similar circumstances.

We administered a paper-based questionnaire by face-to-face survey to university students from Guangdong province, China, who had prior experience purchasing tea bag products. The university community from Guangdong province was selected for two primary reasons. First, China has a rich tradition of tea consumption, particularly in Guangdong province. While most middle-aged and elderly tea consumers primarily purchase whole-leaf tea in metal cans, tea bag products have become popular among young Chinese consumers in recent years, reflecting Western trends. According to the Research Report on Industrial Operation and Big Data of Consumption Insight of Chinese Tea Bags Industry from to 2023–2024, in the daily consumption of fresh-made beverages in the Chinese market, bagged tea (41.0%) stood out in daily life scenarios, beating traditional tea (whole-leaf tea) (33.0%), coffee (32.3%), milk tea (38.7%), and other beverages, and became the favorite choice of consumers. The online market size of China’s bagged tea industry reached RMB 18.03 billion in 2022, and 88.2 percent of consumers are under the age of 40 (iiMedia Research Report, 2024). Second, our research focused on highly educated young individuals to ensure the validity of the data, as younger generations exhibit relatively higher levels of concern towards environmental and carbon-related issues, despite general awareness of environmental protection among Chinese consumers lagging behind that of developed nations. Before distributing the formal questionnaire, we conducted a pretest and collected 50 questionnaires. Based on the feedback from the pretest, we fine-tuned the questionnaire linguistically to ensure that the final form and content were unambiguous and easy to understand. The questionnaires were anonymized free of charge, and collected in the bagged tea sales area of the stores in places where public comprehensive universities are clustered during May to June 2023, and respondents were included only if they had purchased a tea bag product within the last 6 months. All questionnaires were collected by in-person, on-site completion and retrieval, with an average time of approximately 15 minutes per questionnaire. In total, 600 paper questionnaires were distributed, and 404 valid questionnaires were collected (with a response rate of 67%).

Questionnaire design

This study employed a structured questionnaire to investigate participants’ preferences for green packaging and its effects. The questionnaire consisted of three sections. The first section collected demographic information, including variables such as gender, monthly household income per person, and family member career background (refer to Table 1 for detailed information).

Table 1.Demographic information about respondents (n = 404).

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The objective of the second section was to investigate the participants’ preferences for different attributes of green packaging using conjoint analysis. An orthogonal design was utilized to generate product profile cards, resulting in the creation of eight potential green packaging profiles. To analyze consumer preferences for each attribute, we applied a rating-based conjoint analysis. The analysis focused on four primary attributes that simulate a bagged tea product: outer package, inner package, food-grade material, and price (Table 2; Figure 3). Many past consumer studies conducted in the packaging sector have primarily focused on fast-moving consumer goods, also referred to as consumer packaged goods due to their quick shelf turnover, affordability, and low cognitive, temporal, and financial demands (Rokka and Uusitalo 2008, Vyshak et al. 2022). Participants were asked to rank the eight profiles in order of preference (refer to the Appendix). It was designed to identify consumer preferences for green packaging attributes to help packaging manufacturers create green packaging to meet consumer needs.

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Table 2.Description of selected attributes.

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The third section of the questionnaire was designed to measure the cognitive and psychological factors that influence consumers’ perceptions of green packaging. This included their cognitive and affective perceptions, subjective norms, and environmental and carbon-related concerns (see the Appendix). To measure cognitive perceptions, a set of seven questions related to self-perceived knowledge of renewable paper packaging was developed. A set of questions was designed to investigate participants’ emotional response to recycled paper packaging. Subjective norm-related questions mainly investigated the influence of other people upon the participants. Finally, the participants’ environmental and carbon concerns (including self-perceived levels of concern and degrees of attentiveness to environmental problems and carbon issues) were measured using sets of questions respectively. All question items were scored using a five-level Likert scale for measurement (see the questionnaire).

Analysis method

Conjoint analysis was used to estimate the relative importance of selected attributes based on the joint effect of consumer choices. The average importance of each product attribute was calculated by examining individuals’ part-worth utility functions. Conjoint analysis is a widely utilized methodology for measuring consumers’ preferences by analyzing their utility trade-offs among competing products (Green and Srinivasan 1978, Green et al. 2001). Conjoint analysis is often used to examine the impact of multiple product attributes on consumer preferences and purchasing decisions. It can also simulate how consumers may respond to changes from conventional products to new ones (Luo et al. 2017). Orthogonal arrays (Addelman 1962) and other fractional factorial designs are used to construct characterizations of a limited number of alternative products that are arranged according to sectional experimental designs (Green et al. 2001). Respondents are informed of the definition of each product attribute and are then asked to rank or rate a set of cards that are derived from the orthogonal design, each representing different attribute combinations. Statistical methods are then used to assess separate attributes and utilities, providing insight into how consumers prioritize and trade-off different attributes when making purchasing decisions. The basic model of conjoint analysis can be expressed by the following equation: $$U\left(X\right)\hspace{0.17em}=\hspace{0.17em}{\displaystyle \sum _{i=1}^m{\displaystyle \sum _{j=1}^n{a}_{\mathit{ij}}{X}_{\mathit{ij}}}}$$

The equation shows that there are i= 1, 2, … m product attributes in the conjoint analysis; there are j = 1, 2, … n levels in each i attribute. U(X) is the overall utility of each product profile, a_ij is the part-worth utility on the jth level of the ith factor, and X_ij is a dummy variable for the presence of the jth level of the ith factor in the product (X_ij = 0 or X_ij = 1).

Since consumers are partly influenced by green marketing, it is therefore necessary to identify and concentrate promotions on those market targets that are environmentally concerned (Lampe and Gazda 1995). Market segmentation has traditionally been accomplished through the application of conjoint analysis combined with cluster analysis, which is designed to categorize groups of entities that possess shared, distinct characteristics. This approach has emerged as a crucial and fundamental tool in academic consumer studies, as well as in the realm of applied marketing (Punj and Stewart 1983, Djokic et al. 2013). However, this study cannot apply the traditional research paradigm of conducting a socio-demographic factors-based market segmentation analysis using conjoint analysis in combination with cluster analysis due to the concentration of age and education background. Therefore, we applied cognitive and psychological data to describe each segment and applied a linear regression in additional to the traditional post-hoc segmentation, which is not commonly used in marketing studies but has been applied in previous medical research (Bhargava et al. 2006).

The SPSS software (SPSS, Inc., Chicago, Illinois) was employed to assess the importance of each attribute and the utilities of attribute levels, utilizing a rate-based conjoint model (results see Table 3). Conjoint analysis remains a common and important research method and has been widely applied in those studies focusing on products and consumers (e.g., Bech-Larsen and Grunert 2003, Scholz and Decker 2007, Rokka and Uusitalo 2008, Cai and Aguilar 2013, Zimmermann et al. 2013, Acosta et al. 2014, Almli et al. 2015, Arenoe et al. 2015, Lima Filho et al. 2015, Osburg et al. 2016, Luo et al. 2017). Subsequently, a K-means (nonhierarchical algorithm) approach was used to conduct a cluster analysis and categorize respondents into distinct market segments based on their product preferences (Ketchen and Shook 1996). Third, a reliability and validity test was conducted on the measurement of cognitive and psychological factors (cognitive and affective attitudes, subjective norms, environmental- and carbon-related concerns) by constructing five variable components using exploratory factor analysis (EFA). The application of EFA identifies underlying latent factors or constructs within a set of observed variables, reveals their interrelationships, and allows data reduction without loss of essential information, thereby enhancing understanding and parsimony in many psychological, social, and health research areas (Maciel et al. 2013, Hadi et al. 2016, Victor and Hoole 2018, Susilo 2020). Following the outcomes of the cluster analysis, the demographic traits of respondents within each segment were examined through analysis of variance (ANOVA) testing. ANOVA in consumer research is used to statistically assess the significance of mean differences between multiple groups (e.g., product variants, consumer segments, or treatment conditions) to determine whether they differ in their responses to variables of interest (such as preferences, satisfaction, or purchase behavior), providing valuable insights into market segmentation and informing marketing strategies (Bindah and Othman 2012, Todua and Dotchviri 2015, Singh and Rana 2017, Trivedi et al. 2023). Additionally, multilinear regressions were constructed to explore the cognitive and psychological factors that influence the utilities of both outer and inner green packaging for each participant (Table 4). The dependent variables were estimated utilities for green outer and inner packaging from the conjoint analysis of each participant, respectively, while the independent cognitive and psychological variables are selected items from the EFA (where C represents cognitive attitude, A represents affective attitude, SN represents subjective norm, EC represents environmental concern, and CC represents carbon concern; see Table 5).

Table 3.Overall average utility values and relative importance of each attribute.

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Table 4.Results of cluster analysis, exploratory factor analysis (EFA), and analysis of variance (ANOVA).

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Table 5.Linear regression results.

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Green packaging preference

The analysis shows that young consumers can clearly distinguish the advanced properties of green packaging materials, and the importance of those green attributes is almost as unanimous as the importance of price. Compared to the inner packaging and tea bag materials, the environmental performance of the outer packaging is slightly more important. In terms of food-contact packaging materials preference, no matter the environmental protection (paper vs. plastic) or health safety (corn fiber vs. nylon) aspects, the importance to the consumers was almost identical. This suggests that there is almost no significant difference between consumers’ preference for distinct layers of green packaging. However, consumers still perceive the outer packaging as slightly more important than the other two layers. This may be due to the larger physical size of the outer packaging and the perception among consumers that it is the only option that uses recycled paper, making it more environmentally friendly. The level of importance attributed to both the inner packaging and the green materials of tea bags was nearly equal, indicating that consumers weighed environmental concerns and human health considerations to be of similar importance when selecting small-sized green packaging materials. This finding suggests that consumers do not give priority to one aspect over the other, demonstrating a balanced approach to their choices.

Recycled paper versus plain paper

The study examined both cognitive and affective aspects of consumer attitudes towards recycled paper. According to our results, consumers’ cognitive attitude towards green packaging safety issues has a positive impact on their preference for recycled paper packaging, which is consistent with prior research (Van Dam 1996, Thøgersen 1999, Anstine 2000, Micklethwaite 2004, Young 2008, Young et al. 2010, Lindh et al. 2016, Calvo-Porral and Lévy-Mangin 2020). In line with previous studies, we confirmed that the affective aspect of consumers’ attitudes has a positive impact on their preference for recycled paper packaging, since “recycle” and “green” are usually associated with “positive emotions–self-identification–and acceptance” (Mobley et al. 1995, Martinho et al. 2015, Lindh et al. 2016, Stranieri et al. 2017, Kamleitner et al. 2019, Calvo-Porral and Lévy-Mangin 2020, Tezer and Bodur 2020, Adigüzel and Donato 2021, Queiroz et al. 2021, Polyportis et al. 2022). Although previous research has indicated that consumers’ safety concerns may lead to nonadoption of recycled paper-based products, especially for direct food contact (Akkucuk 2011, Fernqvist et al. 2015, Martinho et al. 2015, Lindh et al. 2016, Magnier et al. 2019, Calvo-Porral and Lévy-Mangin 2020, Herbes et al. 2020, Meng and Leary 2021, Oloyede and Lignou 2021, Queiroz et al. 2021), our study design specifically targeted recycled paper as the outermost layer of packaging that does not come into contact with food, and it confirmed that consumer cognitions of safety (C3) issues related to recycled paper were positively correlated with their preference for recycled paper outer packaging. We compared the affective and cognitive attitudinal findings of this study with those of past studies, as summarized in Table 6.

Table 6.Comparison of research findings on attitudes with past related research.

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Our results also confirmed that positive subjective norms, especially perceptions from family members, have a positive impact on the acceptance of recycled paper products. Conversely, negative family-originated subjective norms make consumers price-sensitive. Núñez-Cacho et al. (2020) suggested that consumers are influenced by the beliefs and social pressure of others and are more likely to recycle when surrounded by individuals who prioritize green consumption. Family members, work colleagues, and other social contacts play a role in shaping consumer behavior towards environmental friendly products (Núñez-Cacho et al. 2020). Moreover, ethical expectations from different aspects of society may predispose consumers to accept recycled paper products (Tezer and Bodur 2020). The influence of social and environmental values on consumer attitudes is significant and has been highlighted in previous studies (Bulut and Nazli 2020, Polyportis et al. 2022). Our research further confirms that when it comes to recycled green packaging, the promotion factor from the family members is particularly important.

Environmental consciousness has a positive effect on the preference for recycled paper products, which is consistent with previous research findings (Rucker 2009, Tobler et al. 2011, Venter et al. 2011, Testa et al., 2021). Studies have indicated that environmentally conscious consumers are more likely to pay for recycled paper products due to their environmental benefits (Rucker 2009, Testa et al. 2021). Most consumers perceive the packaging and the product as one entity before consuming the product (Venter et al. 2011). This group of consumers places more importance on the potential environmental impact of packaging rather than on the actual impact on the food and its production when evaluating the environmental impact of the product (Tobler et al. 2011).

An unexpected finding was item A2. Purchasing recycled paper packaging was not perceived as a “smart” decision, but it did have a positive impact on consumer preferences. Although this result may seem counterintuitive, it is important to discuss the underlying consumer psychology. Previous research provides some clues. For instance, Kamleitner et al. (2019) suggested that consumers’ green consumption satisfies their need for self-expression and the desire to feel special. Griskevicius et al. (2010) argued that consumers engage in green consumption behavior due to the influence of altruism, the desire to express self-sacrifice and self-contribution, and to achieve status and prestige in their collective. Since environmental consumerism is not widespread in China, young people are more likely to purchase products with green packaging due to their “rebellion against popular perception” and “spirit of self-sacrifice.”

Paper versus plastic

In addition to exploring the use of recycled paper for outer packaging, our study further analyzed whether the attitudes and subjective norms towards recycled paper and environmental and carbon concerns affected consumers’ choices of paper versus plastic packaging materials. Our findings suggest that consumers’ affective attitudes towards recycled paper positively influence their preference for paper over plastic material. Consistent with the findings (see Table 6) of many past studies, consumers will choose paper over plastic packaging for environmental and safety reasons (Young 2008, Fernqvist et al. 2015, Lindh et al. 2016, Magnier and Schoormans 2015, Popovic et al. 2019). Compared to plastic, paper is more able to bring consumers a healthy, natural, and familiar feeling, thus obtaining a more pleasant psychological feeling. This is also one of the reasons for choosing paper instead of plastic packaging materials (Gelici-Zeko et al. 2013, Fernqvist et al. 2015, Lindh et al. 2016, Steenis et al. 2017, Oloyede and Lignou 2021).

The results of the subjective norm factor show that negative attitudes towards recycled paper packaging in the consumers’ social environment unexpectedly acted as a greater motivator to choose paper packaging over plastic. This result contradicts intuition and several previous research findings (Griskevicius et al. 2010, Yokoyama et al. 2014, Kamleitner et al. 2019, Herrmann et al. 2022). Yokoyama et al. (2014) investigated the social risk perceptions of green consumption behavior from a neuroscientific perspective and found a significant positive correlation between social risk assessment and activity, indicating that consumers experience higher purchase apprehension when they anticipate disapproval from others. However, this finding supports some earlier research suggesting that, in some circumstances, consumers may utilize environmental behavior as a symbol of individuality and egoism in opposition to the wishes of those around them. As Griskevicius et al. (2010) argued, green consumption behavior involves prosocial behavior, where individuals engage in green consumption in order to gain a prosocial reputation and status, even in the face of expected disapproval from those around them. Kamleitner et al. (2019) further asserted that consumers’ green consumption behavior is driven by a maverick, self-claiming mentality. Furthermore, Herrmann et al. (2022) identified the use of paper-based packaging as a symbolic characteristic of young people who express their environmental attitudes by choosing paper-based packaging.

Our research also supports the idea that customers favor paper packaging material over plastic because of concerns about carbon issues. As noted by Otto et al. (2021), consumers are increasingly prioritizing the environmental impact of traditional packaging materials, particularly their carbon footprint. Consumers are critical of excessive packaging, particularly in fruit and vegetable packaging, and are demanding the packaging industry to reduce carbon emissions by using environmentally friendly packaging materials or by eliminating unnecessary packaging altogether (Fernqvist et al. 2015, Magnier and Schoormans 2015, Popovic et al. 2019).